Although this Purāna accepted the Vedic tradition and regarded a Yuga period as consisting of five years (vide supra ch. 50 p. 343, fn. 3), here it follows Manu I.61-74, 79-86. According to Manu, the 1st Yuga, Kruta, has a duration of 4000 years of Devas with 400 divine years of the dawn (Sandhya) of the Age and 400 divine years of transition from Kruta to the next Age (Sandhyamsha). The other Yugas, viz. Tretā, Dväpara ahd Kali consist respectively of a period of 3000,2000 and 1000 years of Devas, each yuga preceded by and followed by Sandhya and Sandhyamsha, each extending over a period of 300, 200, 100 years of Devas. This theory superseded the Vedic one and has been adopted by Puranas e.g. KP. I chs. 51 and 53, NP. I ch.41, VP. I.3., Bd. P. I.2.29 &30 and Mbh. Vana. chs 149 and 188.
The Sages said:
1. We wish to know the nature and reality of the (sets of) four Yugas which occurred formerly in the Svayambhuva Manvantara.
Sūta said:
2. In the context of the description of the earth etc. I have already said about the four Yugas. Now I shall recount them in detail. (Listen and) understand them.
3-4. Calculating everything and mentioning in detail, I shall narrate in full the six aspects viz.: Yuga, Yugabheda (difference in Yugas), Yugadharma (the particular characteristics of each Yuga), Yugasandhi (the junction of Yugas), Yugamsha (the parts of Yugas) and Yugasandhāna (the joints of Yugas).
5. The human year can be understood (calculated) by means of valid working knowledge. Calculating on the basis of that year, I shall explain the four Yugas.
6. The time taken to utter a short syllable is equal to a Nimesha. Nimeşha, Kaşhtha, Kala and Muhūrta are the units of time.1
1. Verses 6-20 give the units of Time, the smallest unit being Nimeşha, the time required to utter one matră (a short vowel). The following are the terms to denote the particular periods.
15 Nimeshas (18 according to Manu) = 1 Kashthā; 30 Kashthäs=1 Kală; 30 Kalās=1 Muhurta; 30 Muhūrtas=complete day (day and night); 30 days=1 month=one day + night of Pitris.
30 Human months=1 Month of Pitris
360 Human months= 1 year of Pitris
Human Uttarāyana (6 months) =Day of Devas
Human Dakşhiņāyana (6 months) =Night of Devas
360 Human Years=1 Year of Devas.
3030 Human Years=1 Saptarshi Year.
9090 Human Years=1 Krauñcha (Dhruva in Bd. P. I.2.29.18) Year.
360000 Human Years=1000 Years of Devas.
7. Fifteen Nimeşhas constitute a Kāşhthā, thirty Kāşhthās make one Kalā, thirty Kalās make one Muhūrta. Thirty Muhūrtas make one full day and night.
8. The sun demarcates the human as well as the divine days and nights. The day is intended for activity and the night is meant for sleep.
9. A (human) month constitutes the day and night of the Pitris. Its division is thus: The dark half is the day for them and the bright half is their night for sleep.
10. Thirty human months make one month of the Pitris. On the basis of the human calculation, three hundred and sixty months constitute a year of the Pitris.
11. A hundred human years constitute three years and four months of Pitris.
12. A human year in accordance with the human calculation is one day and one night of the Devas. This is the conclusion in this scripture.
13. The divine day and night together make a human year. A further classification is that the Uttarāyana period (northern transit of the sun) is the day and the Dakşhiņāyana period (southern transit of the sun) is the night (of Devas),
14. Thirty of the days and nights of the gods or thirty human years make one divine month.
15. One hundred human years make three divine months and three divine days. Thus is the divine reckoning for division of time.
16. Three hundred and sixty years according to the human calculation constitute one divine year.
17. Three thousand and thirty years according to human calculation constitute one year of the Seven Sages (Saptarshis) or the Great Bear.
18. Nine thousand and ninety human years make one Krauñchan year (Dhruva year in Bd. P.I. 2.29.18).
19. Thirty-six thousand human years should be known as one hundred divine years. Thus is the calculation of the divine unit of time.
20. Persons well versed in calculation say that three hundred and sixty thousand years reckoned on the basis of human time units constitute a thousand divine years.
21. It is thus that the sages sang about the divine calculation. They have formulated reckoning of the Yugas and their duration on the basis of the divine calculation.
22. Wise people know that there are four Yugas in Bharata Varşha.1 The first one is Kruta, then follow Tretā, Dväpara and Kali. One should reckon these Yugas in this order.
1. It is strange that the yuga-system should be restricted to India only.
23. They say that Kruta Yuga consists of four thousand years. The Sandhyā (Transition period) consists of as many i.e. four) hundred years. The Sandhyāmsha (part of the junction with the next Yuga) is equal to the Sandhyā period.
24. In the other Yugas, their Sandhyās and Sandhyāmshas there is gradual reduction of thousand and hundred years.
25. Tretă contains three hundred years. Its Sandhyā and Sandhyāmsha consist of three hundred years.
26. The wise say that Dvåpara contains two thousand years. The Sandhyā consists of two hundred years and the Sandhyāṁsha is equal to Sandhyā.
27. The learned say that Kaliyuga consists of a thousand years. Its Sandhyā is of a hundred years and the Sandhyamsha is equal to Sandhyā.
28. This period of twelve thousand (divine) years is known as (Mahā) Yuga. The four Yugas are Kruta, Tretā, Dvåpara and Kali.
29. In this world the calculation of years is based on human level. Now I shall mention the duration of Kruta Yuga in accordance with that type of calculation.1
1. Our text records the duration of Krutayuga and the total number of human years in Chaturyugas. It means verses pertaining to the periods of other Yugas are deleted (For these vide Bd. P.I.2. 29-31-36).
30. The duration is one million tour hundred and forty thousand years. As for Kali Yuga, it is one-fourth of the above.
31. Thus the specific duration of time of the four Yugas excluding the Sandhyās and Sandhyāṁshas is declared.
32. Including the Sandhyās and Sandhyāṁśhas the duration of the four yugas is four million three hundred and twenty thousand human years.
33. Thus seventy-one sets of Chaturyugas consisting of Kruta, Tretă etc., constitute a Manvantara.
34-36. Now understand the number of human years constituting a Manvantara. It will be thirty crores, six millions and seven hundred and twenty thousand human years (306720000 years). The number of years constituting a Manvantara has been calculated by Dvijas, the experts in calculating time. Thus the duration of a Manvantara and that of Yugas has been stated.
37. The first (Kruta) Yuga has four thousand years. The remaining Yugas, viz. Tretā, Dvāpara and Kali, I shall explain.
38. Previously, while engrossed in describing the lineage of the sages, the two Yugas have been mentioned to you as they had come in due order. It is not possible to describe separately the two connected Topics coming in the same context simultaneously.
39 In the beginning of Tretà, Manu and the Seven Sages popularised the sacred rites of Vedic and Smruti origin, directed by Brahma.1
1. Verses 39-85 describe the happy life in Tretāyuga (cf. Mt. P. 142).
40. The Seven Sages expatiated on the Vedic sacred rites such as Marriage, Agnihotra and the like on the basis of Ruk, Yajur and Säman.
41. The Svayambhuva Manu expatiated on the conduct of life based on Smruti injunctions, traditionally handed down and referring to the duties of the different castes and stages of life.
42-44. The Seven Sages and Manu were endowed with truthfulness, celibacy, learning and penance. They had performed penace in accordance with the order of sages. Hence in the beginning of Tretă Yuga, the Mantras manifested themselves to them without their undergoing physical or mental effort. In the first Kalpa those Mantras along with Taraka (Omkāra) and others had already appeared before the Devas.
45. When the (original) Siddhis ceased to exist, these (others) began to function. Thousands of those Mantras which existed in the past Kalpas manifested themselves in their intellect once again.
46. The Seven Sages popularised the Ruk, Yajus, Säman and the Atharvan mantras and Manu propagated the rites in accordance with Smrutis.
47. In the beginning of Tretă, the Vedas were one un divided and unified whole, because Dharma alone prevailed. But they are classified in Dvāpara age due to the shortage of life.
48. In the Kali and Dväpara ages, divine sages and Devas without birth or death were created by penance by the Self born Deity.
49. Following their righteous conduct, along with their lineage, they perform their respective duties in different Yugas. The Vedic texts, with ancillaries, function* with uniform meaning in every age.
*For vikridante in our text here, Bd. P. I.2.29.54 reads vikriyante ‘undergo changes’ (in every yuga).
50. Arambha (expedition or enterprise) was a sacrifice for Kşhattriyas. Havis (offering of ghee etc.) was the Yajña to Vaishyas. Shūdras had service as Yajña and excellent Brāhmaṇas had Japa (chanting of Mantras) as their Yajña.
51. All the castes rejoiced in Tretă age. They were protected righteously. They performed holy rites. They were happy and flourishing. They were blessed with progeny.
52. Kşhattriyas obeyed the (advice etc. of) Brahmaņas, Vaishyas obeyed Kşhattriyas, Shūdras followed Vaishyas. People cooperated and collaborated with one another.
53. Their activities were auspicious. Their holy rites and duties of castes and stages of life too were auspicious, in thought, mind, words and actions. Thus in Tretă age their activities remained unimpaired.
54. In Tretäyuga, people were equally endowed with the same span of life, good intellect, strength, beauty, health and righteousness.
55-57. Brahmå had stipulated the duties of the different castes and different stages of life. But out of delusion the sub jects strayed away from sacred rites. They argued and quarrelled with one another. They approached Prajapati Manu. Manu, the son of Brahmā, realized the state of affairs. He, the creator, the Man, begot of Shatarūpå two sons Priyavrata and Uttanapada. These two were the first kings.
58. Thence arose a line of kings wielding the staff of power of punishment. Since they delighted the subjects, kings were called “Rājānah.”
59-60. In order to check and control those men who commit sins in secret and (hence) are difficult to be subdued, and in order to establish righteousness on the earth, the divisions of castes have been laid down in Tretà Yuga. The compilations of Vedic texts, both Mantras and Brāhmaṇas, have been made by the sages.
61. (The institution of) Yajña has been initiated by Devas, namely Yamas, Shuklas and Japas all fully equipped with the requisites.
62. Formerly, in the Svāyambhuva Manvantara, Yajñas were set in vogue by Devas under the leadership of Indra, the enjoyer of the universe.
63. Truthfulness, Japa, penance and charity are the main virtues in Tretă age. The practice of holy rites and rituals declines and the virtue of truthfulness prevails,
64. Renouncing their staff of punishment due to its super fluity?) those excessively fortunate kings became performers of sacrifice and expounders of the Vedas.
65. Their eyes were as large as lotus petals. Their chests were broad, and their bodies were well-built. They were vigorous and capable of slaving lions. They walked majestically like the elephants in rut.
66. They wielded great bows. They were endowed with all good characteristics. They were Nyagrodha-parimandalas (as explained in the next verse).
67. The word ‘Nyagrodha’ denotes two (both the) arms. Hence Nyagrodha means Vyāma (extended arms). He whose height extends as much as a Vyama, he whose girth and height are equal, should be known as a Nyagrodha-parimandala.
68. The following seven1, viz. a discus, a chariot, a jewel, a spouse, a treasure, a horse and an elephant, are regarded as super-gems (ati-ratna).
1. The idea that an emperor possesses excellent gems (ati-ratnas) is found in Pali, e.g. Sudarsana Sutta, Digha Nikāya. Here verses 68 and 69 give different lists of seven inanāmate jewels’. V. 70 enumerates “living, animate, jewels’. Thus an emperor is (or should be) in possession of 13 jewels. The representation of a chakravartin at Jagayya Petta (2nd cent. B.C.) shows a combination of both animate & inanimate jewels and one more feature-at the touch of the emperor’s hand the sky, showers gold coins.
69. They say that the following seven are the inanimate jewels of the sovereigns of the worlds, viz. a discus, a chariot, a jewel, a sword, an excellent bow (the fifth ratna), a flag and a treasure.
70. The seven jewels (of an emperor) possessing life are mentioned as follows: queen, family-priest, commander in-chief, chariot-maker, minister, horse and elephant (lit. elephant-cub).
71. These fourteen jewels are divine. They have been naturally acquired by the noble-souled ones. These fourteen jewels should be assigned to all emperors (i.e. all emperors should possess these).
72. In all the Manvantaras of the past and future, the emperors are born on the earth with a part of Vişhnu.1
1. Verses 72-80 state the then idea about a model emperor.
73-74. The precious gems are conducive to the welfare of all emperors of the past, present and future born in the Yugas Tretă etc. These four are very wonderful, viz. strength, piety, happiness and wealth (among the emperors).
75. Wealth, dharma, love, fame and victory attained by kings without any conflict are on a par with one another.
76. They excel even the sages by means of (spiritual powers such as) Animā (minuteness) and others the power of Lordship, learning and penance. They overpower Devas, Dänavas and human beings by their strength and austere penance.
77. They are born with super-human marks visible on their bodies. They have a circle of hair on their forehead (between the eyebrows); their tongue sweeps their mouths. Their teeth and lips are copper-coloured; their hair stand facing up; and they have the Śhrīvatsa scar (on the chest).
78. Their arms extend to their knees; their palms are marked with net and bull; they are very tall (Nyagrodha-parinahas); they have shoulders like those of lions; their penises are well shaped. Their gait is as stately as that of a lordly elephant. Their chin bones are broad.
79. There are lines of wheel and fish on the soles of their feet and of conch and lotus on their palms. They live up to eightyfive thousand years as kings without signs of old age.
80. They have unimpeded movement in four places, viz. in the firmament, in the ocean, in the nether regions and on the mountains.
81. Sacrifice, charity, penance and truthfulness are the holy rites in Tretā Age. During this age, Dharma functions in accordance with the division of castes and stages of life.
82. Danda-niti (administration of Justice), aims at the establishment of the bounds of decency. All the subjects are jolly, well built, free from ailments. Their minds are fully contented.
83. Only a single unified Veda with four sub-divisions prevails in Tretă Age. People live up to three thousand years.
84. Surrounded by sons and grandsons, people die in due order (of seniority in age). This is the characteristic feature of Tretà Age. (Now) understand the Tretā-Sandhya (Transition from Tretà Yuga).
85. The traits of Tretă Age continue to one-fourth of the Sandhya and the traits in the Sandhyā continue to one-fourth of the Yuga.
Shamšhapāyana said:
86. How did Yajña function in the beginning of Treta age formerly in the Svayambhuva Manvantara? Please explain it precisely.
87-88. How did they again make the classification and arrangement of the castes and stages of life when the Sandhyā too had elapsed along with Kruta Age and a fraction of it alone remained, and Tretă age set in? How was Yajna made to function, after gathering all the requisites.
On hearing this, Sūta said:
O Shāmshapayana, now listen to this.
89-90. I shall mention how in the beginning of Treta Age Yajña was set in vogue. When there was plenty of rain, the plants grew and agriculture became established. People set about building houses, hermitages and cities. Then Indra the, enjoyer of the universe, arranged the division of castes and stages of life and compiled the Mantras into Samhitās. He prescribed (specific) Mantras for rites leading to fruits here and hereafter.
91. Thus, Indra, the enjoyer of the universe, along with other Devas, initiated Yajña (the institution of sacrifice) together with all its requisites.
92. When the horse-sacrifice was instituted, the sages. arrived there and began to perform sacrifices with the holy sacrificial beasts. On hearing about it, people assembled there to witness it.
93-97. When the Rutviks were busily engaged in sacrificial rites, when the Vedic mantras were recited, when the leading Adhvaryus moved about hurriedly and quickly, when the holy sacrificial beasts were being killed, when the offerings of ghee were poured into the fire by the divine Hotrus, when the noble Devas were invoked and when they partook of their shares in the sacrifice, the sages began to worship Devas in the form of sense-organs (i.e, their presiding deities) who existed in the beginning of the Kalpas. The Adhvaryus who were great sages got ready at the time of praisha to slay the animals. On seeing the animals in their pitiable condition, the great sages collectively asked Indra1- “What is this sacrificial rite of yours?
98. Desirous of a rite involving violence to life you have started an extremely sinful activity. O leading and excellent Deva, in this Yajña of yours the slaughter of animals is not a desirable act.
99. An evil activity has been started by you for destroying Dharma through animal-slaughter. This is not Dharma. This is an evil, sinful act. Violence can never be a Dharma.
100-101. If Your Honour wishes to perform the Yajña do it as per injunctions in the Vedas. You may worship by means of the Yajña that will not cause the violation (dissipation) of Dharma. O great god, perform the Yajna with the sacrifice worthy seeds, which does not involve violence (Himsa)-he seeds which are kept for the maximum period of three years and which do not germinate (into sprouts). O Indra1 -This great Dharma (rite) has been laid down formerly by the self-born god (Brahma).”
1. Verses 97-102 record the Brahmanical protest against animal-sacrifice. A germinable seed is also prohibited as it involves Himsa. Only old seeds incapable of germinating into sprouts should be used.
102. In this way Indra, the enjoyer of the universe, was asked by the sages, the seers of Reality: ‘Say with what objects, mobile (living) or immobile (inanimate), Yajña shall be performed?’
103. The great sages eagerly seeking truth got tired of the dispute. Coming to a compromise with Indra they asked lord Vasu:
The Sages said:
104. “O excessively intelligent king, O son of Uttänapäda, how was the procedure of Yajña seen by you? Please tell us. O lord, clear our doubts.”
105. On hearing their words, the king remembered the Vedic texts and, without pondering over the strong or weak points, he explained the facts about. Yajña. The king said: “The Yajña shall be performed as laid down in the sacred texts.
106. It shall be performed with sacrificial animals or seeds and fruits. Violence is the nature of Yajña. This is what appears to me.
107. Inasmuch as the Mantras in the Samhitās, as revealed to the sages endowed with penance and the visions of Taraka and other mantras, are indicative of violence, what I have said now is based on that authority. Hence it behoves you to forgive me.
108. O Brāhmaṇas, if those statements in Mantras are authoritative, let the Yajña function on those lines, otherwise those statements will become false”.
Thus those sages of Yogic communion were rendered unable to reply (silenced by him).
109-110. Glancing at the world below they said- “For that purpose be quiet. Though a king, you have uttered a lie. So enter the nether world”. As soon as this was uttered, the king entered the nether world. Having been a resident of the upper regions, he now became a resident of the nether regions.1
1. The fall of Vasu for supporting animal-sacrifice shows that violence to life even for religious purpose was condemned at the time of the Purāņa. The legend is found in Mbh. Shanti. 337. 13-16.
111. Thanks to that statement of the sages, he became a resident of the nether regions. Attempting to clear doubts in Dharma matters, King Vasu (in the nether world) went below.
112. No person, even if he be very learned, should express a decisive opinion all by himself, in regard to the disputed points of Dharma. The way of Dharma is very subtle. It has many loopholes and is inscrutable.
113. Excepting Svayambhuva Manu, none of Devas and sages can pronounce a judgment on Dharma.
114. So, violence was not approved as a means to Dharma by the great sages.2 Thousands and crores of sages have attained heaven by means of their activities.
2. Verses 114-118 establish the superiority of the path of knowledge (jnana-märga) over karma-marga including sacrifices.
115. For the same reason, the sages do not unduly praise charity or Yajña. By making gifts of even insignificant articles such as bulbous root, fruit, vegetables or waterpot, in accordance with their means, the sages have become established in heaven.
116. Adroha (absence of ill-feeling), Alobha (absence of covetousness), Dama (self-control), Bhūtadaya (kindness to living beings), Tapas (penance), Brahmacharya (celibacy), Satya (truthfulness), Anukrosha (compassion and tenderness), Kshamā (forgiveness) and Dhruti (fortitude)—these are roots of Dharma but extremely difficult to achieve.
117. Yajña consists of piety and Mantras; Tapas is of the nature of observance of fast; one attains Devas through Yajña and Vairagya (detachment) through penace.
118. Brahmanhood is attained through Karmasannyāsa (renunciation of the fruits of Karman). Assimilation in the supreme Ātman) is obtained through detachment. Kaivalya (complete identity with Brahman) is obtained through perfect knowledge. These are the five goals of life.
119. Thus, formerly, in the Svāyambhuva Manvantara, a dispute arose between Devas and sages in regard to the practice of Yajña.
120. Then, after witnessing that wonderful procedure (of Yajña) through violence and disregarding the suggestions of Vasu, the sages returned to the place whence they had come.
121-123. When the sages had gone away, Devas completed the Yajña and attained the fruits. It is heard that many Brahmana-Kshatriya kings had attained Siddhis through penance. These include Priyavrata, Uttänapäda, Dhruva, Medhåtithi, Vasu, Sumedhas, Virajas, Shankhapät, Rajas, Prächinabarhis, Parjanya, Havirdhana and other kings. These and many other kings attained Siddhis and went to heaven. They were saintly kings of great prowess whose fame was well-established.
124. Hence by all means, in regard to everything, penance surpasses Yajña. It was by penance that the universe was created by Brahma.
125. So, Yajña can never excel penance. All this visible universe) has its roots in penance. In this manner Yajña was set in vogue in the Svayambhuva Manvantara. From that time onwards the performance of Yajñas continued as Yugas rolled on.